Uncirculated Septimius Severus AR Denarius. Rome, AD 196-197. [L] SEPT SEV PERT AVG [IMP VIII], laureate bust to right / ADVENTVI AVG FELICISSIMO, Emperor, on horse prancing to right, raising hand. RIC IV 74; BMCRE 151 (wars of succession) corr. (bust type); RSC 6. 3.5. Lucius Septimius Severus(Latin:[swers]; 11 April 145 4 February 211) wasRoman emperorfrom 193 to 211. He was born inLeptis Magna(present-dayAl-Khums,Libya) in the Roman province ofAfrica. As a young man he advanced throughthe customary succession of officesunder the reigns ofMarcus AureliusandCommodus. Severus seized power after the death of the emperorPertinaxin 193 during theYear of the Five Emperors.After deposing and killing the incumbent emperorDidius Julianus, Severus fought his rival claimants, the Roman generalsPescennius NigerandClodius Albinus. Niger was defeated in 194 at theBattle of IssusinCilicia. Later that year Severus waged a short punitive campaign beyond the eastern frontier, annexing theKingdom of Osroeneas a new province. Severus defeated Albinus three years later at theBattle of LugdunuminGaul. Following the consolidation of his rule over the western provinces, Severus waged another brief, more successful war in the east against theParthian Empire, sacking their capitalCtesiphonin 197 and expanding the eastern frontier to theTigris. He then enlarged and fortified theLimes ArabicusinArabia Petraea. In 202, he campaigned inAfricaandMauretaniaagainst theGaramantes, capturing their capitalGaramaand expanding theLimes Tripolitanusalong the southern desert frontier of the empire. He proclaimed asaugusti(co-emperors) his elder sonCaracallain 198 and his younger sonGetain 209, both born of his second wifeJulia Domna. Severus travelled toBritainin 208, strengtheningHadrian's Walland reoccupying theAntonine Wall. In 209 he invadedCaledonia(modernScotland) with an army of 50,000 men but his ambitions were cut short when he fell fatally ill of an infectious disease in late 210. He died in early 211 atEboracum(todayYork, England), and was succeeded by his sons, who were advised by their mother and his powerful widow, Julia Domna, thus founding theSeveran dynasty. It was the last dynasty of the Roman Empire before theCrisis of the Third Century. Born on 11 April 145 atLeptis Magna(in present-dayLibya) as the son ofPublius Septimius GetaandFulvia Pia,[3]Septimius Severus came from a wealthy and distinguished family ofequestrianrank. Severus hadItalicandPunicancestry; the Roman ancestry came from his mother's side, while his Punic ancestry came from his father's side.Due to his family background on his father's side he is considered the first provincial emperor as he was the first emperor not only born in the provinces but also into a provincial family of non-Italian origin.Severus' father, an obscure provincial, held no major political status, but he had two cousins, Publius Septimius Aper and Gaius Septimius Severus, who served as consuls under the emperorAntoninus Piusr.138161. His mother's ancestors had moved fromItalytoNorth Africa; they belonged to thegensFulvia, anItalianpatrician familythat originated inTusculum. Septimius Severus had two siblings: an elder brother,Publius Septimius Geta; and a younger sister, Septimia Octavilla. Severus' maternal cousin was thepraetorian prefectand consulGaius Fulvius Plautianus.Septimius Severus grew up in Leptis Magna. He spoke the localPunic languagefluently, but he was also educated inLatinandGreek, which he spoke with a slight accent. Little else is known of the young Severus' education but, according toCassius Dio, the boy had been eager for more education than he actually received. Presumably, Severus received lessons inoratory: at the age of 17, he gave his first public speech. Public service Severus sought a public career inRomein around 162. At the recommendation of his relative Gaius Septimius Severus, the emperorMarcus Aurelius(r.161180) granted him entry into the senatorial ranks.Membership in the senatorial order was a prerequisite to attain positions within thecursus honorumand to gain entry into the Roman Senate. Nevertheless, it appears that Severus' career during the 160s met with some difficulties. It is likely that he served as avigintivirin Rome, overseeing road maintenance in or near the city, and he may have appeared in court as an advocate.At the time of Marcus Aurelius, he was the State Attorney (Advocatus fisci).However, he omitted themilitary tribunatefrom thecursus honorumand had to delay hisquaestorshipuntil he had reached the required minimum age of 25.To make matters worse, theAntonine Plagueswept through the capital in 166. With his career at a halt, Severus decided to temporarily return to Leptis, where the climate was healthier.According to theHistoria Augusta, a usually unreliable source, he was prosecuted foradulteryduring this time but the case was ultimately dismissed. At the end of 169, Severus was of the required age to become a quaestor and journeyed back to Rome. On 5December, he took office and was officially enrolled in theRoman Senate.Between 170 and 180 his activities went largely unrecorded, in spite of the fact that he occupied an impressive number of posts in quick succession. TheAntonine Plaguehad thinned the senatorial ranks and, with capable men now in short supply, Severus' career advanced more steadily than it otherwise might have. The sudden death of his father necessitated another return to Leptis Magna to settle family affairs. Before he was able to leave Africa,Mauritribesmen invaded southern Spain. Control of the province was handed over to the emperor, while the Senate gained temporary control ofSardiniaas compensation. Thus, Septimius Severus spent the remainder of his second term as quaestor on the island ofSardinia. In 173, Severus' kinsman Gaius Septimius Severus was appointedproconsulof the Province of Africa. The elder Severus chose his cousin as one of his twolegati pro praetore, a senior military appointment.Following the end of this term, Septimius Severus returned to Rome, taking up office astribune of the plebs, a senior legislative position, with the distinction of being thecandidatusof the emperor. In 191, on the advice ofQuintus Aemilius Laetus,prefectof thePraetorian Guard,emperor Commodusappointed Severus as governor ofPannonia Superior.At around this time he is described by the classicist Kyle Harper as being "a middling senator of modest physical stature and unexceptional accomplishment".[30]Commodus was assassinated the following year.Pertinaxwas acclaimed emperor, but he was then killed by the Praetorian Guard in early 193. In response to the murder of Pertinax, Severus' legionXIV Geminaacclaimed him emperor atCarnuntum. Nearby legions, such asX GeminaatVindobona, soon followed suit. Having assembled an army, Severus hurried to Italy. Pertinax's successor in Rome,Didius Julianus, had bought the emperorship in an auction. Julianus was condemned to death by the Senate and killed.Severus took possession of Rome without opposition. He executed Pertinax's murderers and dismissed the rest of thePraetorian Guard, filling its ranks with loyal troops from his own legions. The legions ofSyriahad proclaimedPescennius Nigeremperor. At the same time Severus felt it reasonable to offerClodius Albinus, the powerful governor ofBritannia, who had probably supported Didius against him, the rank ofCaesar, which implied some claim to the succession. With his rear safe, he moved to the East and crushed Niger's forces at theBattle of Issus(194).While campaigning againstByzantium, he ordered that the tomb of hisfellow-CarthaginianHannibalbe covered with fine marble. He devoted the following year to suppressingMesopotamiaand otherParthianvassals who had backed Niger. Afterwards, Severus declared his sonCaracallaas his successor, which caused Albinus to be hailed emperor by his troops and to invade Gaul. After a short stay in Rome, Severus moved north to meet him. On 19February 197 at theBattle of Lugdunum, with an army of about 75,000 men, mostly composed ofPannonian,MoesianandDacianlegions and a large number of auxiliaries, Severus defeated and killed Clodius Albinus, securing his full control over the empire.War againstParthia Aureusminted in 193 by Septimius Severus to celebrateXIIIIGemina Martia Victrix, the legion that proclaimed him emperor. Inscription: IMP. CAE. L. SEP. SEV. PERT[INAX] AVG. / LEG. XIIII CEM. M. V. TR. P., CO[N]S. In early 197 Severus left Rome and sailed to the east. He embarked atBrundisiumand probably landed at the port ofAegeaeinCilicia, travelling on toSyriaby land. He immediately gathered his army and crossed theEuphrates. Abgar IX, titular King ofOsroenebut essentially only the ruler ofEdessasince the annexation of his kingdom as a Roman province,handed over his children as hostages and assisted Severus' expedition by providing archers.KingKhosrov I of Armeniaalso sent hostages, money and gifts. Severus travelled on toNisibis, which his generalJulius Laetushad prevented from falling intoParthianhands. Afterwards Severus returned to Syria to plan a more ambitious campaign. The following year he led another, more successful campaign against theParthian Empire, reportedly in retaliation for the support it had given toPescennius Niger. His legions sacked the Parthian royal city ofCtesiphonand he annexed the northern half ofMesopotamiato the empire;Severus took the titleParthicus Maximus, following the example ofTrajan.However, he was unable to capture the fortress ofHatra, even after two lengthy siegesjust like Trajan, who had tried nearly a century before. During his time in the east, though, Severus also expanded theLimes Arabicus, building new fortifications in theArabian DesertfromBasietoDumatha. Relations with the Senate and People Severus' relations with theSenatewere never good. He was unpopular with them from the outset, having seized power with the help of the military, and he returned the sentiment. Severus ordered the execution of a large number of Senators on charges of corruption orconspiracyagainst him and replaced them with his favourites. Although his actions turned Rome more into a militarydictatorship, he was popular with the citizens of Rome, having stamped out the rampant corruption of Commodus' reign. When he returned from his victory over the Parthians, he erected theArch of Septimius Severusin Rome. According to Cassius Dio,however, after 197 Severus fell heavily under the influence of his Praetorian prefect,Gaius Fulvius Plautianus, who came to have almost total control of the imperial administration. At the same time, a bloody power crisis erupted between Plautianus andJulia Domna, Severus' influential and powerful wife, which had a relatively destructive effect on the centre of power. Plautianus' daughter,Fulvia Plautilla, was married to Severus' son, Caracalla. Plautianus' excessive power came to an end in 204, when he was denounced by the emperor's dying brother. In January 205 Julia Domna andCaracallaaccused Plautianus of plotting to kill him and Severus. The powerful prefect was executed while he was trying to defend his case in front of the two emperors.One of the two followingpraefectiwas the famous juristPapinian. Executions of senators did not stop: Cassius Dio records that many of them were put to death, some after being formally tried. After the assassination of Gaius Fulvius Plautianus in the rest of his reign, he relied more on the advice of his clever and educated wife,Julia Domna, in the administration of the empire. Military reforms Upon his arrival at Rome in 193, Severus discharged thePraetorian Guard, which had murdered Pertinax and had then auctioned the Roman Empire to Didius Julianus. Its members were stripped of their ceremonial armour and forbidden to come within 160 kilometres (99mi) miles of the city on pain of death.Severus replaced the old guard with 10 new cohorts recruited from veterans of his Danubian legions. Around 197 he increased the number of legions from 30 to 33, with the introduction of the three new legions: I, II and IIIParthica. He garrisonedLegio II ParthicaatAlbanum, only 20 kilometres (12mi) from Rome. He gave his soldiers adonativeof a thousandsesterces(250denarii) each, and raised the annual wage for a soldier in the legions from 300 to 400denarii. Severus was the first Roman emperor to station some of the imperial army in Italy. He realized that Rome needed a military central reserve with the capability to be sent anywhere. Reputed persecution of Christians At the beginning of Severus' reign,Trajan's policy toward the Christians was still in force. That is, Christians were only to be punished if they refused to worship the emperor and the gods, but they were not to be sought out.Therefore, persecution was inconsistent, local and sporadic. Faced with internal dissidence and external threats, Severus felt the need to promote religious harmony by promotingsyncretism. He, possibly, issued an edict that punished conversion to Judaism and Christianity. A number ofpersecutionsof Christians occurred in the Roman Empire during his reign and are traditionally attributed to Severus by the early Christian community.This is based on the decree mentioned in theHistoria Augusta,an unreliable mix of fact and fiction.Early church historianEusebiusdescribed Severus as a persecutor.TheChristian apologistTertullianstated that Severus was well disposed towards Christians, employed a Christian as his personal physician and had personally intervened to save several high-born Christians known to him from the mob.Eusebius' description of Severus as a persecutor likely derives merely from the fact that numerous persecutions occurred during his reign, including those known in theRoman Martyrologyas the martyrs ofMadauros,CharalambosandPerpetua and FelicityinRoman-ruled Africa. These were probably the result of local persecutions rather than empire-wide actions or decrees by Severus. Military activity In late 202 Severus launched a campaign in the province of Africa. Thelegatus legionisor commander ofLegio III Augusta,Quintus Anicius Faustus, had been fighting against theGaramantesalong theLimes Tripolitanusfor five years. He captured several settlements such asCydamus, Gholaia, Garbia and their capitalGaramaover 600 kilometres (370mi) south ofLeptis Magna.The province ofNumidiawas also enlarged: the empire annexed the settlements ofVescera,Castellum Dimmidi,Gemellae,ThabudeosandThubunae.By 203 the entire southern frontier of Roman Africa had been dramatically expanded and re-fortified. Desert nomads could no longer safely raid the region's interior and escape back into theSahara. Britain (208) In 208 Severus travelled to Britain with the intention of conqueringCaledonia. Modern archaeological discoveries illuminate the scope and direction of his northern campaign.Severus probably arrived in Britain with an army of over 40,000, considering some of the camps constructed during his campaign could house this number. He strengthenedHadrian's Walland reconquered theSouthern Uplandsup to theAntonine Wall, which was also enhanced. Severus built a 165-acre (67ha) camp south of the Antonine Wall atTrimontium, probably assembling his forces there. Supported and supplied by a strong naval force,Severus then thrust north with his army across the wall into Caledonian territory. Retracing the steps ofAgricolaof over a century before, Severus rebuilt and garrisoned many abandoned Roman forts along the east coast, such asCarpow. Cassius Dio's account of the invasion reads: Severus, accordingly, desiring to subjugate the whole of it, invaded Caledonia. But as he advanced through the country he experienced countless hardships in cutting down the forests, levelling the heights, filling up the swamps, and bridging the rivers; but he fought no battle and beheld no enemy in battle array. The enemy purposely put sheep and cattle in front of the soldiers for them to seize, in order that they might be lured on still further until they were worn out; for in fact, the water caused great suffering to the Romans, and when they became scattered, they would be attacked. Then, unable to walk, they would be slain by their own men, in order to avoid capture, so that a full fifty thousand died. But Severus did not desist until he approached the extremity of the island. Here he observed most accurately the variation of the sun's motion and the length of the days and the nights in summer and winter, respectively. Having thus been conveyed through practically the whole of the hostile country (for he actually was conveyed in a covered litter most of the way, on account of his infirmity), he returned to the friendly portion, after he had forced the Britons to come to terms, on the condition that they should abandon a large part of their territory. By 210 Severus' campaigning had made significant gains, despite Caledonian guerrilla tactics and purportedly heavy Roman casualties.The Caledonians sued for peace, which Severus granted on condition they relinquish control of the Central Lowlands.This is evidenced by extensive Severan-era fortifications in the Central Lowlands.The Caledonians, short on supplies and feeling that their position was desperate, revolted later that year with theMaeatae.Severus prepared for another protracted campaign within Caledonia. He was now intent on exterminating the Caledonians, telling his soldiers: "Let no-one escape sheer destruction, no-one our hands, not even the babe in the womb of the mother, if it be male; let it nevertheless not escape sheer destruction." Severus' campaign was cut short when he fell ill.He withdrew toEboracum(York) and died there in 211.Although his son Caracalla continued campaigning the following year, he soon settled for peace. The Romans never campaigned deep into Caledonia again. Shortly after this, the frontier was permanently withdrawn south to Hadrian's Wall. Severus is famously said to have given the advice to his sons: "Be harmonious, enrich the soldiers, scorn all others" before he died on 4 February 211.On his death, Severus wasdeifiedby the Senate and succeeded by his sons,CaracallaandGeta, who were advised by his wifeJulia Domna.Severus was buried in theMausoleum of Hadrianin Rome

Uncirculated Septimius Severus AR Denarius. Rome, AD 196-197. L SEPT SEV [PERT] AVG IMP VIII, laureate head to right / ADVENTVI AVG FELICISSIMO, Emperor, on horse prancing to right, raising hand. RIC IV 74; BMCRE 151 (wars of succession) corr. (bust type); RSC 6. 3.24g, 18mm, 12h.. Lucius Septimius Severus(Latin:[swers]; 11 April 145 4 February 211) wasRoman emperorfrom 193 to 211. He was born inLeptis Magna(present-dayAl-Khums,Libya) in the Roman province ofAfrica. As a young man he advanced throughthe customary succession of officesunder the reigns ofMarcus AureliusandCommodus. Severus seized power after the death of the emperorPertinaxin 193 during theYear of the Five Emperors.After deposing and killing the incumbent emperorDidius Julianus, Severus fought his rival claimants, the Roman generalsPescennius NigerandClodius Albinus. Niger was defeated in 194 at theBattle of IssusinCilicia. Later that year Severus waged a short punitive campaign beyond the eastern frontier, annexing theKingdom of Osroeneas a new province. Severus defeated Albinus three years later at theBattle of LugdunuminGaul. Following the consolidation of his rule over the western provinces, Severus waged another brief, more successful war in the east against theParthian Empire, sacking their capitalCtesiphonin 197 and expanding the eastern frontier to theTigris. He then enlarged and fortified theLimes ArabicusinArabia Petraea. In 202, he campaigned inAfricaandMauretaniaagainst theGaramantes, capturing their capitalGaramaand expanding theLimes Tripolitanusalong the southern desert frontier of the empire. He proclaimed asaugusti(co-emperors) his elder sonCaracallain 198 and his younger sonGetain 209, both born of his second wifeJulia Domna. Severus travelled toBritainin 208, strengtheningHadrian's Walland reoccupying theAntonine Wall. In 209 he invadedCaledonia(modernScotland) with an army of 50,000 men but his ambitions were cut short when he fell fatally ill of an infectious disease in late 210. He died in early 211 atEboracum(todayYork, England), and was succeeded by his sons, who were advised by their mother and his powerful widow, Julia Domna, thus founding theSeveran dynasty. It was the last dynasty of the Roman Empire before theCrisis of the Third Century. Born on 11 April 145 atLeptis Magna(in present-dayLibya) as the son ofPublius Septimius GetaandFulvia Pia,[3]Septimius Severus came from a wealthy and distinguished family ofequestrianrank. Severus hadItalicandPunicancestry; the Roman ancestry came from his mother's side, while his Punic ancestry came from his father's side.Due to his family background on his father's side he is considered the first provincial emperor as he was the first emperor not only born in the provinces but also into a provincial family of non-Italian origin.Severus' father, an obscure provincial, held no major political status, but he had two cousins, Publius Septimius Aper and Gaius Septimius Severus, who served as consuls under the emperorAntoninus Piusr.138161. His mother's ancestors had moved fromItalytoNorth Africa; they belonged to thegensFulvia, anItalianpatrician familythat originated inTusculum. Septimius Severus had two siblings: an elder brother,Publius Septimius Geta; and a younger sister, Septimia Octavilla. Severus' maternal cousin was thepraetorian prefectand consulGaius Fulvius Plautianus.Septimius Severus grew up in Leptis Magna. He spoke the localPunic languagefluently, but he was also educated inLatinandGreek, which he spoke with a slight accent. Little else is known of the young Severus' education but, according toCassius Dio, the boy had been eager for more education than he actually received. Presumably, Severus received lessons inoratory: at the age of 17, he gave his first public speech. Public service Severus sought a public career inRomein around 162. At the recommendation of his relative Gaius Septimius Severus, the emperorMarcus Aurelius(r.161180) granted him entry into the senatorial ranks.Membership in the senatorial order was a prerequisite to attain positions within thecursus honorumand to gain entry into the Roman Senate. Nevertheless, it appears that Severus' career during the 160s met with some difficulties. It is likely that he served as avigintivirin Rome, overseeing road maintenance in or near the city, and he may have appeared in court as an advocate.At the time of Marcus Aurelius, he was the State Attorney (Advocatus fisci).However, he omitted themilitary tribunatefrom thecursus honorumand had to delay hisquaestorshipuntil he had reached the required minimum age of 25.To make matters worse, theAntonine Plagueswept through the capital in 166. With his career at a halt, Severus decided to temporarily return to Leptis, where the climate was healthier.According to theHistoria Augusta, a usually unreliable source, he was prosecuted foradulteryduring this time but the case was ultimately dismissed. At the end of 169, Severus was of the required age to become a quaestor and journeyed back to Rome. On 5December, he took office and was officially enrolled in theRoman Senate.Between 170 and 180 his activities went largely unrecorded, in spite of the fact that he occupied an impressive number of posts in quick succession. TheAntonine Plaguehad thinned the senatorial ranks and, with capable men now in short supply, Severus' career advanced more steadily than it otherwise might have. The sudden death of his father necessitated another return to Leptis Magna to settle family affairs. Before he was able to leave Africa,Mauritribesmen invaded southern Spain. Control of the province was handed over to the emperor, while the Senate gained temporary control ofSardiniaas compensation. Thus, Septimius Severus spent the remainder of his second term as quaestor on the island ofSardinia. In 173, Severus' kinsman Gaius Septimius Severus was appointedproconsulof the Province of Africa. The elder Severus chose his cousin as one of his twolegati pro praetore, a senior military appointment.Following the end of this term, Septimius Severus returned to Rome, taking up office astribune of the plebs, a senior legislative position, with the distinction of being thecandidatusof the emperor. In 191, on the advice ofQuintus Aemilius Laetus,prefectof thePraetorian Guard,emperor Commodusappointed Severus as governor ofPannonia Superior.At around this time he is described by the classicist Kyle Harper as being "a middling senator of modest physical stature and unexceptional accomplishment".[30]Commodus was assassinated the following year.Pertinaxwas acclaimed emperor, but he was then killed by the Praetorian Guard in early 193. In response to the murder of Pertinax, Severus' legionXIV Geminaacclaimed him emperor atCarnuntum. Nearby legions, such asX GeminaatVindobona, soon followed suit. Having assembled an army, Severus hurried to Italy. Pertinax's successor in Rome,Didius Julianus, had bought the emperorship in an auction. Julianus was condemned to death by the Senate and killed.Severus took possession of Rome without opposition. He executed Pertinax's murderers and dismissed the rest of thePraetorian Guard, filling its ranks with loyal troops from his own legions. The legions ofSyriahad proclaimedPescennius Nigeremperor. At the same time Severus felt it reasonable to offerClodius Albinus, the powerful governor ofBritannia, who had probably supported Didius against him, the rank ofCaesar, which implied some claim to the succession. With his rear safe, he moved to the East and crushed Niger's forces at theBattle of Issus(194).While campaigning againstByzantium, he ordered that the tomb of hisfellow-CarthaginianHannibalbe covered with fine marble. He devoted the following year to suppressingMesopotamiaand otherParthianvassals who had backed Niger. Afterwards, Severus declared his sonCaracallaas his successor, which caused Albinus to be hailed emperor by his troops and to invade Gaul. After a short stay in Rome, Severus moved north to meet him. On 19February 197 at theBattle of Lugdunum, with an army of about 75,000 men, mostly composed ofPannonian,MoesianandDacianlegions and a large number of auxiliaries, Severus defeated and killed Clodius Albinus, securing his full control over the empire.War againstParthia Aureusminted in 193 by Septimius Severus to celebrateXIIIIGemina Martia Victrix, the legion that proclaimed him emperor. Inscription: IMP. CAE. L. SEP. SEV. PERT[INAX] AVG. / LEG. XIIII CEM. M. V. TR. P., CO[N]S. In early 197 Severus left Rome and sailed to the east. He embarked atBrundisiumand probably landed at the port ofAegeaeinCilicia, travelling on toSyriaby land. He immediately gathered his army and crossed theEuphrates. Abgar IX, titular King ofOsroenebut essentially only the ruler ofEdessasince the annexation of his kingdom as a Roman province,handed over his children as hostages and assisted Severus' expedition by providing archers.KingKhosrov I of Armeniaalso sent hostages, money and gifts. Severus travelled on toNisibis, which his generalJulius Laetushad prevented from falling intoParthianhands. Afterwards Severus returned to Syria to plan a more ambitious campaign. The following year he led another, more successful campaign against theParthian Empire, reportedly in retaliation for the support it had given toPescennius Niger. His legions sacked the Parthian royal city ofCtesiphonand he annexed the northern half ofMesopotamiato the empire;Severus took the titleParthicus Maximus, following the example ofTrajan.However, he was unable to capture the fortress ofHatra, even after two lengthy siegesjust like Trajan, who had tried nearly a century before. During his time in the east, though, Severus also expanded theLimes Arabicus, building new fortifications in theArabian DesertfromBasietoDumatha. Relations with the Senate and People Severus' relations with theSenatewere never good. He was unpopular with them from the outset, having seized power with the help of the military, and he returned the sentiment. Severus ordered the execution of a large number of Senators on charges of corruption orconspiracyagainst him and replaced them with his favourites. Although his actions turned Rome more into a militarydictatorship, he was popular with the citizens of Rome, having stamped out the rampant corruption of Commodus' reign. When he returned from his victory over the Parthians, he erected theArch of Septimius Severusin Rome. According to Cassius Dio,however, after 197 Severus fell heavily under the influence of his Praetorian prefect,Gaius Fulvius Plautianus, who came to have almost total control of the imperial administration. At the same time, a bloody power crisis erupted between Plautianus andJulia Domna, Severus' influential and powerful wife, which had a relatively destructive effect on the centre of power. Plautianus' daughter,Fulvia Plautilla, was married to Severus' son, Caracalla. Plautianus' excessive power came to an end in 204, when he was denounced by the emperor's dying brother. In January 205 Julia Domna andCaracallaaccused Plautianus of plotting to kill him and Severus. The powerful prefect was executed while he was trying to defend his case in front of the two emperors.One of the two followingpraefectiwas the famous juristPapinian. Executions of senators did not stop: Cassius Dio records that many of them were put to death, some after being formally tried. After the assassination of Gaius Fulvius Plautianus in the rest of his reign, he relied more on the advice of his clever and educated wife,Julia Domna, in the administration of the empire. Military reforms Upon his arrival at Rome in 193, Severus discharged thePraetorian Guard, which had murdered Pertinax and had then auctioned the Roman Empire to Didius Julianus. Its members were stripped of their ceremonial armour and forbidden to come within 160 kilometres (99mi) miles of the city on pain of death.Severus replaced the old guard with 10 new cohorts recruited from veterans of his Danubian legions. Around 197 he increased the number of legions from 30 to 33, with the introduction of the three new legions: I, II and IIIParthica. He garrisonedLegio II ParthicaatAlbanum, only 20 kilometres (12mi) from Rome. He gave his soldiers adonativeof a thousandsesterces(250denarii) each, and raised the annual wage for a soldier in the legions from 300 to 400denarii. Severus was the first Roman emperor to station some of the imperial army in Italy. He realized that Rome needed a military central reserve with the capability to be sent anywhere. Reputed persecution of Christians At the beginning of Severus' reign,Trajan's policy toward the Christians was still in force. That is, Christians were only to be punished if they refused to worship the emperor and the gods, but they were not to be sought out.Therefore, persecution was inconsistent, local and sporadic. Faced with internal dissidence and external threats, Severus felt the need to promote religious harmony by promotingsyncretism. He, possibly, issued an edict that punished conversion to Judaism and Christianity. A number ofpersecutionsof Christians occurred in the Roman Empire during his reign and are traditionally attributed to Severus by the early Christian community.This is based on the decree mentioned in theHistoria Augusta,an unreliable mix of fact and fiction.Early church historianEusebiusdescribed Severus as a persecutor.TheChristian apologistTertullianstated that Severus was well disposed towards Christians, employed a Christian as his personal physician and had personally intervened to save several high-born Christians known to him from the mob.Eusebius' description of Severus as a persecutor likely derives merely from the fact that numerous persecutions occurred during his reign, including those known in theRoman Martyrologyas the martyrs ofMadauros,CharalambosandPerpetua and FelicityinRoman-ruled Africa. These were probably the result of local persecutions rather than empire-wide actions or decrees by Severus. Military activity In late 202 Severus launched a campaign in the province of Africa. Thelegatus legionisor commander ofLegio III Augusta,Quintus Anicius Faustus, had been fighting against theGaramantesalong theLimes Tripolitanusfor five years. He captured several settlements such asCydamus, Gholaia, Garbia and their capitalGaramaover 600 kilometres (370mi) south ofLeptis Magna.The province ofNumidiawas also enlarged: the empire annexed the settlements ofVescera,Castellum Dimmidi,Gemellae,ThabudeosandThubunae.By 203 the entire southern frontier of Roman Africa had been dramatically expanded and re-fortified. Desert nomads could no longer safely raid the region's interior and escape back into theSahara. Britain (208) In 208 Severus travelled to Britain with the intention of conqueringCaledonia. Modern archaeological discoveries illuminate the scope and direction of his northern campaign.Severus probably arrived in Britain with an army of over 40,000, considering some of the camps constructed during his campaign could house this number. He strengthenedHadrian's Walland reconquered theSouthern Uplandsup to theAntonine Wall, which was also enhanced. Severus built a 165-acre (67ha) camp south of the Antonine Wall atTrimontium, probably assembling his forces there. Supported and supplied by a strong naval force,Severus then thrust north with his army across the wall into Caledonian territory. Retracing the steps ofAgricolaof over a century before, Severus rebuilt and garrisoned many abandoned Roman forts along the east coast, such asCarpow. Cassius Dio's account of the invasion reads: Severus, accordingly, desiring to subjugate the whole of it, invaded Caledonia. But as he advanced through the country he experienced countless hardships in cutting down the forests, levelling the heights, filling up the swamps, and bridging the rivers; but he fought no battle and beheld no enemy in battle array. The enemy purposely put sheep and cattle in front of the soldiers for them to seize, in order that they might be lured on still further until they were worn out; for in fact, the water caused great suffering to the Romans, and when they became scattered, they would be attacked. Then, unable to walk, they would be slain by their own men, in order to avoid capture, so that a full fifty thousand died. But Severus did not desist until he approached the extremity of the island. Here he observed most accurately the variation of the sun's motion and the length of the days and the nights in summer and winter, respectively. Having thus been conveyed through practically the whole of the hostile country (for he actually was conveyed in a covered litter most of the way, on account of his infirmity), he returned to the friendly portion, after he had forced the Britons to come to terms, on the condition that they should abandon a large part of their territory. By 210 Severus' campaigning had made significant gains, despite Caledonian guerrilla tactics and purportedly heavy Roman casualties.The Caledonians sued for peace, which Severus granted on condition they relinquish control of the Central Lowlands.This is evidenced by extensive Severan-era fortifications in the Central Lowlands.The Caledonians, short on supplies and feeling that their position was desperate, revolted later that year with theMaeatae.Severus prepared for another protracted campaign within Caledonia. He was now intent on exterminating the Caledonians, telling his soldiers: "Let no-one escape sheer destruction, no-one our hands, not even the babe in the womb of the mother, if it be male; let it nevertheless not escape sheer destruction." Severus' campaign was cut short when he fell ill.He withdrew toEboracum(York) and died there in 211.Although his son Caracalla continued campaigning the following year, he soon settled for peace. The Romans never campaigned deep into Caledonia again. Shortly after this, the frontier was permanently withdrawn south to Hadrian's Wall. Severus is famously said to have given the advice to his sons: "Be harmonious, enrich the soldiers, scorn all others" before he died on 4 February 211.On his death, Severus wasdeifiedby the Senate and succeeded by his sons,CaracallaandGeta, who were advised by his wifeJulia Domna.Severus was buried in theMausoleum of Hadrianin Rome